Comparative Analysis of Deutetrabenazine and Valbenazine as VMAT2 Inhibitors for Tardive Dyskinesia: A Systematic Review.

Background: Tardive Dyskinesia (TD) is a neurological disorder characterized by involuntary movements, often caused by dopamine receptor antagonists. Vesicular Monoamine Transporter 2 (VMAT2) inhibitors, such as valbenazine and deutetrabenazine, have emerged as promising therapies for TD and several clinical trials have shown their efficacy. This study aims to compare the efficacy and safety profile of VMAT2 inhibitors, focusing on a recent trial conducted in the Asian population. Methods: We reviewed the PubMed, Cochrane Library, Embase database, and clinicaltrials.gov between January 2017 and October 2023, using the keywords "tardive dyskinesia" AND ("valbenazine" [all fields] OR " deutetrabenazine " [all fields]) AND "clinical trial". The reviewed articles were studied for efficacy and side effects. Results: An initial search yielded 230 articles, of which 104 were duplicates. Following the title and abstract screening, 25 additional articles were excluded. A full-text review resulted in the exclusion of 96 more articles. Ultimately, four double-blind clinical trials met the inclusion criteria. The deutetrabenazine studies demonstrated significant improvements in Abnormal Involuntary Movement Scale (AIMS) scores compared to placebo, with no difference in adverse events. The valbenazine studies showed favorable results in reducing TD symptoms and were well-tolerated. Discussion: The studies reviewed in this analysis underscore the potential of deutetrabenazine and valbenazine as valuable treatment options for TD in diverse populations. Both medications demonstrated significant improvements in AIMS scores, suggesting their effectiveness in managing TD symptoms. Additionally, they exhibited favorable safety profiles, with low rates of serious adverse events and no significant increase in QT prolongation, parkinsonism, suicidal ideation, or mortality. Conclusion: The studies reviewed highlight the promising efficacy and tolerability of deutetrabenazine and valbenazine as treatments for Tardive Dyskinesia, providing new hope for individuals affected by this challenging condition.

An Evidence-Based Update on Anticholinergic Use for Drug-Induced Movement Disorders.

Drug-induced movement disorders (DIMDs) are associated with use of dopamine receptor blocking agents (DRBAs), including antipsychotics. The most common forms are drug-induced parkinsonism (DIP), dystonia, akathisia, and tardive dyskinesia (TD). Although rare, neuroleptic malignant syndrome (NMS) is a potentially life-threatening consequence of DRBA exposure. Recommendations for anticholinergic use in patients with DIMDs were developed on the basis of a roundtable discussion with healthcare professionals with extensive expertise in DIMD management, along with a comprehensive literature review. The roundtable agreed that "extrapyramidal symptoms" is a non-specific term that encompasses a range of abnormal movements. As such, it contributes to a misconception that all DIMDs can be treated in the same way, potentially leading to the misuse and overprescribing of anticholinergics. DIMDs are neurobiologically and clinically distinct, with different treatment paradigms and varying levels of evidence for anticholinergic use. Whereas evidence indicates anticholinergics can be effective for DIP and dystonia, they are not recommended for TD, akathisia, or NMS; nor are they supported for preventing DIMDs except in individuals at high risk for acute dystonia. Anticholinergics may induce serious peripheral adverse effects (e.g., urinary retention) and central effects (e.g., impaired cognition), all of which can be highly concerning especially in older adults. Appropriate use of anticholinergics therefore requires careful consideration of the evidence for efficacy (e.g., supportive for DIP but not TD) and the risks for serious adverse events. If used, anticholinergic medications should be prescribed at the lowest effective dose and for limited periods of time. When discontinued, they should be tapered gradually.

Efficacy and Safety of Valbenazine in Japanese Patients With Tardive Dyskinesia and Schizophrenia/Schizoaffective Disorder or Bipolar Disorder/Depressive Disorder: Primary Results and Post Hoc Analyses of the J-KINECT Study.

PURPOSE: This post hoc analysis investigated whether a patient's underlying psychiatric disease (schizophrenia/schizoaffective disorder [SCHZ] or bipolar disorder/depressive disorder [MOOD]) influenced the efficacy or safety of valbenazine for tardive dyskinesia (TD) in an Asian population. METHODS: We analyzed data from J-KINECT, a multicenter, phase II/III, randomized, double-blind study, which consisted of a 6-week placebo-controlled period followed by a 42-week extension where Japanese patients with TD received once-daily 40- or 80-mg valbenazine. We compared the change from baseline in Abnormal Involuntary Movement Scale total score and Clinical Global Impression of TD score between patients with SCHZ and those with MOOD, and incidence of treatment-emergent adverse events. RESULTS: Of 256 patients included in the placebo-controlled period, 211 continued to the long-term extension. The mean change from baseline in Abnormal Involuntary Movement Scale total score at week 6 (95% confidence interval) was -1.8 (-3.2 to -0.5) and -3.3 (-4.7 to -1.9) in the valbenazine 40- and 80-mg groups, respectively (SCHZ group), and -2.4 (-3.9 to -0.9) and -3.5 (-5.1 to -1.9) in the valbenazine 40- and 80-mg groups, respectively (MOOD group), demonstrating improvement at either dose level over placebo, regardless of the underlying disease. These results were maintained to week 48, and improvements of Clinical Global Impression of TD scores were similar. There were no notable differences in the incidence of serious or fatal treatment-emergent adverse events by underlying disease; differences in the incidence of worsening schizophrenia and depression were attributed to underlying disease progression. CONCLUSIONS: Safety and efficacy of long-term valbenazine therapy for TD did not vary according to underlying psychiatric disease.

[The value of re-evaluation and thorough family history taking for the diagnostic work-up of chorea]. / Het diagnostisch proces bij chorea: het belang van heroverwegen en de familieanamnese.

The differential diagnosis of chorea encompasses a broad range of disorders. In psychiatry, tardive dyskinesia may be difficult to discern from other causes, particularly when the family history is negative. A 59-year-old man with an unclear medical history had been using risperidone for over a decade when we first saw him. He presented with severe dyskinesia in all extremities. The family history for neuropsychiatric disorders was negative. We interpreted the movement disorder as tardive dyskinesia, but later he turned out to suffer from Huntington’s disease. To improve diagnostic accuracy, we should have more frequently re-evaluated the differential diagnosis and our family history should have been more thorough. We outline the diagnostic considerations in patients presenting with chorea. Finally, we highlight the value of diagnostic re-evaluation and thorough family history taking to optimize diagnostic accuracy in neuropsychiatry.

The Tardive Dyskinesia Impact Scale (TDIS), a novel patient-reported outcome measure in tardive dyskinesia: development and psychometric validation.

BACKGROUND: Tardive dyskinesia (TD), a movement disorder in which patients experience abnormal involuntary movements, can have profound negative impacts on physical, cognitive, and psychosocial functioning. The Abnormal Involuntary Movement Scale (AIMS), a clinician-rated outcome, is considered the gold standard for evaluating treatment efficacy in TD clinical trials. However, it provides little information about the impacts of uncontrolled movements from a patient perspective and can be cumbersome to administer in clinical settings. The Tardive Dyskinesia Impact Scale (TDIS) was developed as a patient-reported outcome measure to fulfill the need for a disease-specific impact assessment in TD. The objective of the present study was to develop and evaluate the psychometric properties of the TDIS to determine whether it is fit-for-purpose to measure TD impact. METHODS: Data from qualitative studies and phase 3 trials of a VMAT2 inhibitor for the treatment of TD (KINECT3 and KINECT4) were used to determine the psychometric properties of the TDIS. Qualitative research included concept elicitation and cognitive debriefing interviews with TD patients and their caregivers in order to assess how well the TDIS captured key domains of TD impact. Quantitative analyses to examine the psychometric properties of the TDIS included assessing construct validity (factor structure, known groups, and predictive validity) and responsiveness to change. RESULTS: Qualitative results showed that the TDIS captures the key TD impacts reported by patients and caregivers and that the TDIS was interpreted as intended and relevant to patients' experiences. Quantitative results found evidence of 2 underlying domains of the TDIS: physical and socioemotional (Comparative Fit Index > 0.9). Known groups and predictive validity indicated that, compared with the AIMS, the TDIS captures unique content (correlation between AIMS and TDIS = 0.2-0.28). The TDIS showed responsiveness to change in treatment, with TDIS scores improving over 48 weeks in the 2 phase 3 trials. CONCLUSIONS: The TDIS captures relevant information about the impact of TD and is easily administered in a clinician's office or patient's home. It may be used longitudinally to show changes in TD burden over time. The TDIS complements the AIMS; using these assessments together provides a more holistic assessment of TD.

Tardive dyskinesia is a condition where people have uncontrollable movements because of taking certain medications for a long time. It is still poorly understood how these uncontrollable movements affect a person's everyday activities. We created a questionnaire called the Tardive Dyskinesia Impact Scale (TDIS). The TDIS is a questionnaire where people with tardive dyskinesia rate how their symptoms affect daily activities such as speaking and walking. People can also rate how the uncontrollable movements make them feel. We used specific tests called psychometric tests to see if the TDIS measures the correct information and if the information is reliable. Findings from this study show that the TDIS is a good way to measure how a person's uncontrollable movements affect everyday activities. The results also show that when people take medicine to help with their symptoms, their TDIS scores are better. When patients stopped taking the medicine, their symptoms were worse, and their TDIS score was worse. The TDIS can help people explain how their uncontrollable movements affect their daily life. This can then help their doctors understand the person's condition better.

The Clinician's Tardive Inventory (CTI): A New Clinical Tool for Documenting and Rating Tardive Dyskinesia.

Objective: Current clinician-rated tardive dyskinesia (TD) symptom scales have not addressed the expanding clinical signs and functional impact of TD. The study objective was to develop and test the reliability of a new integrated instrument.Methods: A movement disorder neurologist devised the outline of the rating scale. A Steering Committee (5 neurologists and 2 psychiatrists) provided revisions until consensus was reached. The Clinician's Tardive Inventory (CTI) assesses abnormal movements of the eye/eyelid/face, tongue/mouth, jaw, and limb/trunk; complex movements defined as complicated movements different from simple patterned movements or postures; and vocalizations. The CTI rates frequency of symptoms from 0 to 3 (ranging from absent to constant). Functional impairments, including activities of daily living (ADL), social impairment, symptom distress, and physical harm, are rated 0-3 (ranging from unawareness to severe impact). The CTI underwent interrater and test-retest reliability testing between February and June 2022 based on videos and accompanying vignettes, which were reviewed by 2 movement disorder specialists to determine adequacy. Four clinicians rated each video/vignette. Interrater agreement was analyzed via 2-way random-effects intraclass correlation (ICC), and test-retest agreement was assessed utilizing the Kendall tau-b.Results: Forty-five video/vignettes were assessed for interrater reliability and 16 for test-retest reliability. The most prevalent movements were those of the tongue and mouth (77.8%) and jaw (55.6%). ICCs for movement frequency for anatomic symptoms were as follows: anatomic symptom summary score 0.92, abnormal eye movement 0.89, abnormal tongue/mouth movement 0.91, abnormal jaw movement 0.89, abnormal limb movement 0.76, complex movement 0.87, and abnormal vocalization 0.77; ICCs for functional impairments were as follows: total impairment score 0.92, physical harm 0.82, social embarrassment 0.88, ADLs 0.83, and symptom bother 0.92; Retests were conducted a mean (SD) of 15 (3) days later with correlation coefficients ranging from 0.66 to 0.87.Conclusions: The CTI is a new integrated instrument with proven reliability in assessing TD signs and functional impacts. Future validation study is warranted.

Meta-analysis and systematic review of vesicular monoamine transporter (VMAT-2) inhibitors in schizophrenia and psychosis.

RATIONALE: Dopamine antagonists induce dopamine receptor supersensitivity. This may manifest in late-appearing movement disorders (tardive dyskinesia (TD). VMAT-2 inhibitors reduce dopaminergic transmission but have limited activity at postsynaptic receptors and so may have antipsychotic activity with lower risk of tardive dyskinesia. METHODS: We conducted a systematic database search from inception to September 2022 for articles describing the use of VMAT-2 inhibitors in psychosis. Inclusion criteria were as follows: Population: adults diagnosed with psychosis or schizophrenia; Intervention: treatment with tetrabenazine, deutetrabenazine or valbenazine; Comparison: comparison with placebo or/and antipsychotic drug; Outcomes: with efficacy outcomes (e.g. Brief Psychiatric Rating Scale (BPRS) change or clinician assessment) and adverse effects ratings (e.g. rating scale or clinician assessment or dropouts); and Studies: in randomised controlled trials and non-randomised studies. RESULTS: We identified 4892 records relating to VMAT-2 inhibitor use of which 5 (173 participants) met our a priori meta-analysis inclusion criteria. VMAT-2 inhibitors were more effective than placebo for the outcome 'slight improvement' (risk ratio (RR) = 1.77 (95% CI 1.03, 3.04)) but not for 'moderate improvement' (RR 2.81 (95% CI 0.27, 29.17). VMAT-2 inhibitors were as effective as active comparators on both measures for-'slight improvement' (RR 1.05 (95% CI 0.6, 1.81)) and 'moderate improvement' (RR 1.11 (95% CI 0.51, 2.42). Antipsychotic efficacy was also suggested by a narrative review of 37 studies excluded from the meta-analysis. CONCLUSIONS: VMAT-2 inhibitors may have antipsychotic activity and may offer promise for treatment of psychosis with the potential for a reduced risk of TD.

Associations between Catechol-O-methyltransferase (COMT) polymorphisms and cognitive impairments, psychiatric symptoms and tardive dyskinesia in schizophrenia.

INTRODUCTION: Catechol-O-methyltransferase (COMT) is a crucial enzyme involved in dopamine metabolism and has been implicated in the etiology of tardive dyskinesia (TD). We aimed to investigate the associations between COMT gene polymorphisms and the occurrence and severity of TD in a Chinese population, as well as the impact on the psychiatric symptoms and cognitive impairments observed in TD patients. METHODS: A total of 216 chronic schizophrenia patients, including 59 TD patients and 157 NTD patients, were recruited for this study. Three SNPs of the COMT gene (rs4680, rs165599 and rs4818) were selected and genotyped using matrix-assisted laser desorption ionization time-of-flight mass spectrometry (MALDI-TOF-MS). TD severity, psychopathology and cognitive functioning were assessed using the Abnormal Involuntary Movement Scale (AIMS), the Positive and Negative Syndrome Scale (PANSS) and the Repeated Battery for Assessment of Neuropsychological Status (RBANS), respectively. RESULTS: In TD patients, total AIMs scores were higher in carriers of the rs4680 AA genotype than in carriers of the AG and GG genotypes (p = 0.01, 0.006), carriers of the rs4818 GC and CC genotypes had higher orofacial scores than in GG genotypes (p = 0.032, 0.002). In male TD patients, carriers of the rs165599 GA genotype scored lower in the extremities and trunk scores than AA genotype carriers (p = 0.015). Moreover, in male TD patients, COMT rs4818 was associated with cognition, since the C allele carriers had significantly higher immediate memory (p = 0.043) and verbal function (p = 0.040) scores than the G allele carriers. In addition, rs165599 genotype interacted with TD diagnosis on depressed factor (p = 0.031). CONCLUSION: Within the Chinese population, COMT gene polymorphisms could potentially serve as biomarkers for the symptoms and prognosis of TD patients.

The Extrapyramidal Symptom Rating Scale and Its Abbreviated Version: A Critical Review of Clinimetric Properties.

BACKGROUND: The Extrapyramidal Symptom Rating Scale - Abbreviated (ESRS-A) is an abbreviated version of the Extrapyramidal Symptom Rating Scale (ESRS) with instructions, definitions, and a semi-structured interview that follows clinimetric concepts of measuring clinical symptoms. Similar to the ESRS, the ESRS-A was developed to assess four types of drug-induced movement disorders (DIMD): parkinsonism, akathisia, dystonia, and tardive dyskinesia (TD). SUMMARY: The present review of the literature provides the most relevant clinimetric properties displayed by the ESRS and ESRS-A in clinical studies. Comprehensive ESRS-A definitions, official scale, and basic instructions are provided. ESRS inter-rater reliability was evaluated in two pivotal studies and in multicenter international studies. Inter-rater reliability was high for assessing both antipsychotic-induced movement disorders and idiopathic Parkinson's disease. Guidelines were also established for inter-rater reliability and the rater certification processes. The ESRS showed good concurrent validity with 96% agreement between Abnormal Involuntary Movement Scale (AIMS) for TD-defined cases and ESRS-defined cases. Similarly, concurrent validity for ESRS-A total and subscores for parkinsonism, akathisia, dystonia, and dyskinesia ranged from good to very good. The ESRS was particularly sensitive for detecting DIMD-related movement differences following treatment with placebo, antipsychotics, and antiparkinsonian and antidyskinetic medications. ESRS measurement of drug-induced extrapyramidal symptoms was shown to discriminate extrapyramidal symptoms from psychiatric symptoms. KEY MESSAGES: The ESRS and ESRS-A are valid clinimetric indices for measuring DIMD. They can be valuably implemented in clinical research, particularly in trials testing antipsychotic medications, and in clinics to detect the presence, severity, and response to treatment of movement disorders.

Bacillus Calmette-Guérin Vaccine Attenuates Haloperidol-Induced TD-like Behavioral and Neurochemical Alteration in Experimental Rats.

Tardive dyskinesia (TD) is a hyperkinetic movement disorder that displays unusual involuntary movement along with orofacial dysfunction. It is predominantly associated with the long-term use of antipsychotic medications, particularly typical or first-generation antipsychotic drugs such as haloperidol. Oxidative stress, mitochondrial dysfunction, neuroinflammation, and apoptosis are major pathophysiological mechanisms of TD. The BCG vaccine has been reported to suppress inflammation, oxidative stress, and apoptosis and exert neuroprotection via several mechanisms. Our study aimed to confirm the neuroprotective effect of the BCG vaccine against haloperidol-induced TD-like symptoms in rats. The rats were given haloperidol (1 mg/kg, i.p.) for 21 days after 1 h single administration of the BCG vaccine (2 × 107 cfu). Various behavioral parameters for orofacial dyskinesia and locomotor activity were assessed on the 14th and 21st days after haloperidol injection. On the 22nd day, all rats were euthanized, and the striatum was isolated to estimate the biochemical, apoptotic, inflammatory, and neurotransmitter levels. The administration of the BCG vaccine reversed orofacial dyskinesia and improved motor function in regard to haloperidol-induced TD-like symptoms in rats. The BCG vaccine also enhanced the levels of antioxidant enzymes (SOD, GSH) and reduced prooxidants (MDA, nitrite) and pro-apoptotic markers (Cas-3, Cas-6, Cas-9) in rat brains. Besides this, BCG treatment also restored the neurotransmitter (DA, NE, 5-HT) levels and decreased the levels of HVA in the striatum. The study findings suggest that the BCG vaccine has antioxidant, antiapoptotic, and neuromodulatory properties that could be relevant in the management of TD.

Impact of tardive dyskinesia on patients and caregivers: a survey of caregivers in the United States.

BACKGROUND: Tardive dyskinesia (TD) has a multidimensional impact on patients with TD and, as importantly, their caregivers. An online survey was developed and administered to assess patient and caregiver burden of TD. Survey participants were unpaid caregivers for patients with diagnoses of TD and schizophrenia, bipolar disorder, and/or major depressive disorder. Overall, 162 caregivers rated the 7-day impact of TD on the physical, psychological, and social functioning of patients and the impact of TD on these domains in their own lives and in their professional lives. RESULTS: Across physical, psychological, and social domains, most caregivers (82.7%) reported that TD had severe impact on the cared-for patients, and 23.5% reported severe impact of TD in their own lives. Caregivers experienced 46.4% activity impairment, and caregivers who were employed (n = 136) experienced 49.5% overall work impairment because of TD-related caregiving. CONCLUSIONS: These results suggest that TD imposes substantial burden for both caregivers and patients.

Regional Homogeneity in schizophrenia patients with tardive dyskinesia: a resting-state fMRI study.

Neuronal degeneration and apoptosis may play an important role in the pathogenesis of tardive dyskinesia (TD). Previous studies suggested brain structural and functional abnormalities in patients with TD. We investigated changes in cerebral regional homogeneity (ReHo) in patients with TD using resting-state functional magnetic resonance imaging (rs-fMRI). Imaging data were collected from schizophrenia patients with TD (TD group, n=58) and without TD (non-TD group, n=66) and healthy controls (HC group, n=67), processed with SPM, and evaluated at a corrected threshold. Psychopathology and severity of TD were assessed with the Positive and Negative Syndrome Scale (PANSS) and Abnormal Involuntary Movement Scale (AIMS), respectively. Results: TD vs. non-TD group showed significantly higher ReHo in the Left Inferior Semilunar Lobule and Right Fusiform Gyrus and lower ReHo in Left Supramarginal Gyrus, Right Inferior Tempotal Gyrus, and Left Medial Frontal Gyrus. The ReHo value in the Left Inferior Semilunar Lobule was negatively correlated with AIMS upper limbs scores. Conclusions: The findings suggest altered regional neural connectivities in association with TD and may inform research of the etiology and monitor the course of TD in patients with schizophrenia and potentially other psychotic disorders.

Treatment of severe tardive dyskinesia with concurrent administration of olanzapine, clonazepam, baclofen, and gabapentin: a case report.

BACKGROUND: Long-term use of antipsychotics or other dopamine antagonists can result in the extrapyramidal side effect of tardive dyskinesia (TD).Case presentation: An 18-year-old female patient experienced abnormal speech and behavior and because of an equivocal diagnosis, she was given daily doses of 300 mg of quetiapine and 60 mg of ziprasidone. She had used these medications for 2 years before the appearance of involuntary abnormal movements. These movements, which were classified as TD, steadily worsened and markedly interfered with her daily life. Following a trial-and-error course of therapy with vitamin E, vitamin B6, amantadine, valproic acid sodium, lorazepam, and diazepam, the drugs were gradually reduced and stopped, yet the aberrant movements persisted. Finally, the patient was given olanzapine, clonazepam, baclofen, and gabapentin. The Abnormal Involuntary Movement Scale was used to assess changes in the patient's condition. Her TD was efficiently managed through co-administration of olanzapine, clonazepam, baclofen, and gabapentin. CONCLUSIONS: The possibility of TD inducing by antipsychotic use is a clinical concern, even though atypical antipsychotics decrease the incidence of extrapyramidal side effects, and it cannot be entirely excluded. This report provides useful insights into the management of TD and will help clinicians manage similar cases.

Investigating Real-World Benztropine Usage Patterns in Movement Disorders: Claims Analysis and Health Care Provider Survey Results.

Objective: To evaluate real-world treatment patterns for patients initiating benztropine and to understand treatment approaches in patients with drug-induced movement disorders from a health care provider perspective.Methods: A retrospective claims analysis was conducted among patients with evidence of benztropine initiation from January 2017 through March 2020 to assess treatment patterns and patient health care resource utilization. Subsequently, a 30-minute, United States-based online survey fielded from December 2021 to January 2022 was sent to physicians, nurse practitioners, and physician assistants who reported a primary care or psychiatry specialty currently treating drug-induced movement disorders and prescribed benztropine.Results: The health care claims analysis included 112,542 patients. Polypharmacy and multiple comorbidities were frequent characteristics in this population; 54.1% of patients had ≥ 2 comorbidities at baseline, and 59.1% had claims for > 10 medications. Benztropine was used for > 3 months in > 50% of the population. Health care costs and resource utilization were high, with mean all-cause pharmacy and outpatient costs totaling $11,755. Survey results from 349 primary care or psychiatry health care providers indicated that benztropine is often used in non-tardive dyskinesia drug-induced movement disorders but frequently continued for > 3 months or used in tardive dyskinesia. In this study, psychiatry providers prescribed benztropine in line with guideline recommendations more often than primary care providers; however, < 40% indicated familiarity with 2020 American Psychiatric Association Practice Guideline for the Treatment of Patients with Schizophrenia.Conclusions: These complementary analyses suggest that benztropine is used long-term in non-tardive dyskinesia drug-induced movement disorders and in tardive dyskinesia despite risks of worsening tardive dyskinesia or adverse effects.Prim Care Companion CNS Disord 2023;25(4):22m03472. Author affiliations are listed at the end of this article.

Associations between polymorphisms in the cannabinoid receptor 1 gene, cognitive impairments and tardive dyskinesia in a Chinese population with schizophrenia.

OBJECTIVE: Tardive dyskinesia (TD) is a medically induced movement disorder that occurs as a result of long-term use of antipsychotic medications, commonly seen in patients with schizophrenia (SCZ). The study aimed to investigate the relationship between single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) of the CNR1 gene, TD and cognitive impairments in a Chinese population with SCZ. METHODS: A total of 216 SCZ patients were recruited. The participants were divided into TD and without TD (WTD) groups using the Schooler-Kane International Diagnostic Criteria. The severity of TD was assessed using the Abnormal Involuntary Movement Scale (AIMS). Cognitive function was assessed using the Repeatable Battery for Assessment of Neuropsychological Status (RBANS) scale. Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium tests, chained disequilibrium analyses and haplotype analyses were performed using SHE-sis software. To explore the main effects of TD diagnosis, genotype and cognitive function, as well as interaction effects, analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) was employed. RESULTS: The prevalence of TD was approximately 27.3%. Significant differences were observed in the rs806368 CT genotype and rs806370 TC genotype within the hypercongenic pattern between the male TD and WTD groups (OR = 2.508, 95% CI: 1.055-5.961, p = 0.037; OR = 2.552, 95% CI: 1.073-6.069, p = 0.034). Among TD patients, those carrying the rs806368 CC genotype exhibited higher limb trunk scores (p < 0.05). Moreover, there was a statistically significant difference in visuospatial/construction between the TD and WTD groups (p = 0.04), and a borderline significant difference in visuospatial/construction when considering the interaction between TD diagnosis and genotype at the rs806368 locus (p = 0.05). CONCLUSION: CNR1 rs806368 and rs806370 polymorphisms may play a role in TD susceptibility. Additionally, CNR1 gene polymorphisms were associated with the severity of involuntary movements and cognitive impairments in TD patients.

Efficacy and safety of Transcranial Direct Current Stimulation (tDCS) on cognitive function in chronic schizophrenia with Tardive Dyskinesia (TD): a randomized, double-blind, sham-controlled, clinical trial.

OBJECTIVE: Previous studies have shown that transcranial direct current stimulation(tDCS) led to an improvement of cognitive function in patients with schizophrenia, but rare study has explored the effect of tDCS on long-term hospitalized chronic schizophrenia with tardive dyskinesia (TD). The present research explored if cognitive function in patients with long-term hospitalized chronic schizophrenia with TD could be improved through tDCS. METHODS: This study is a randomized, double-blind, sham-controlled clinical trial. Of the 52 patients, 14 dropped out, and 38 completed the experiment. Thirty-eight patients on stable treatment regimens were randomly assigned to receive active tDCS(n = 21) or sham stimulation(n = 17) on weekdays of the first, third, and fifth weeks of treatment. Patients performed the Pattern Recognition Memory (PRM) and the Intra/Extradimensional Set Shift (IED) from the Cambridge Neuropsychological Test Automated Battery (CANTAB) at baseline and the end of week 3, week 5. Clinical symptoms were also measured at the baseline and the fifth week using the Scale for the Assessment of Negative Symptoms (SANS) and the Positive and Negative Syndrome Scale (PANSS). Side effects of tDCS were assessed with an experimenter-administered open-ended questionnaire during the whole experiment. RESULTS: There were no significant differences in PRM and IED performance metrics, SANS total score and PANSS total score between active and sham tDCS groups at the end of week 5 (p > 0.05). Furthermore, there was a significant difference in the adverse effects of the tingling sensation between the two groups (p < 0.05), but there was no significant difference in other side effects (p > 0.05). CONCLUSION: According to these findings, no evidence supports using anodal stimulation over the left dorsolateral prefrontal cortex to improve cognitive function in patients with long-term hospitalized chronic schizophrenia with TD.

Levodopa/Carbidopa to Augment the Treatment of Amblyopia: A Report by the American Academy of Ophthalmology.

PURPOSE: To review the published literature on the use of levodopa/carbidopa to augment the treatment of amblyopia. METHODS: Literature searches for English language studies were last conducted in October 2022 in the PubMed database with no date restrictions. The combined searches yielded 55 articles, of which 23 were reviewed in full text. Twelve of these were considered appropriate for inclusion in this assessment and were assigned a level of evidence rating by the panel methodologist. Nine studies were rated level I, and 3 studies were rated level II; there were no level III studies. RESULTS: The duration of treatment was limited to 3 to 16 weeks because of concern about long-term adverse effects such as tardive dyskinesia. This complication was not reported in any of the study participants. The dose of levodopa ranged from 1.5 to 8.3 mg/kg/day, generally divided into 3 daily doses. The carbidopa dose was approximately 25% of the levodopa dose in all treatments. Evidence from these studies indicates that augmenting traditional patch occlusion therapy with the oral administration of levodopa/carbidopa can improve the vision of amblyopic children, but the effect was small (0.17-0.3 logarithm of the minimum angle of resolution [logMAR] units) and only statistically significant when compared with patching alone in 2 of the 12 studies cited. Regression of vision was reported in the majority of studies (9 of 12 reported; range, 0-0.17 logMAR unit regression) after discontinuation of therapy. Short-term side effects of the medications were not consistently reported but were most frequently mild and included headache and nausea. CONCLUSIONS: The best available evidence is currently insufficient to show that augmenting amblyopia therapy using up to 16 weeks of levodopa/carbidopa will result in meaningful improvement in visual acuity. Given the potential for significant side effects such as tardive dyskinesia with long-term therapy, levodopa/carbidopa does not appear to be a viable option for amblyopia therapy FINANCIAL DISCLOSURE(S): The author(s) have no proprietary or commercial interest in any materials discussed in this article.